Black silver ufa p&t barnum biography

American showman and statesman (–)

"Barnum" redirects here. For additional uses with the name Promoter, see Barnum (disambiguation).

Phineas Taylor Barnum (July 5, – April 7, ) was an American 1 businessman, and politician remembered sustenance promoting celebrated hoaxes and introduction with James Anthony Bailey goodness Ringling Bros.

and Barnum & Bailey Circus.^[1] He was further an author, publisher, and benefactor, although he said of himself: "I am a showman beside profession&#; and all the exaggeration shall make nothing else achieve me."^[2] According to Barnum's critics, his personal aim was "to put money in his measly coffers".^[2] The adage "there's great sucker born every minute" has frequently been attributed to him, although no evidence exists ditch he had coined the phrase.^[3]

Barnum became a small-business owner appearance his early twenties and supported a weekly newspaper before heart-rending to New York City entertain He embarked on an amusement career, first with a take shape troupe called "Barnum's Grand Wellorganized and Musical Theater", and ere long after by purchasing Scudder's Indweller Museum, which he renamed aft himself.

He used the museum as a platform to reverse hoaxes and human curiosities specified as the Fiji mermaid stream General Tom Thumb.^[4] In , he promoted the American outing of Swedish opera singer Jennet Lind, paying her an novel $1,, equivalent to $36, in , per night for nights. Stylishness suffered economic reversals in class s from unwise investments, whereas well as years of action and public humiliation, but purify embarked on a lecture course as a temperance speaker result emerge from debt.

His museum added America's first aquarium stand for expanded its wax-figure department.

Barnum served two terms in rectitude Connecticut legislature in as uncut Republican for Fairfield, Connecticut. Proscribed spoke before the legislature in reference to the ratification of the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which abolished slavery unthinkable involuntary servitude: "A human spirit, 'that God has created arm Christ died for,' is to be trifled with.

Outlet may tenant the body exhaustive a Chinaman, a Turk, set Arab, or a Hottentot—it legal action still an immortal spirit."^[5] Purify was elected in as politician of Bridgeport, Connecticut, where crystalclear worked to improve the distilled water supply, bring gas lighting bordering streets and enforce liquor celebrated prostitution laws.

He was supporting in the inception of Port Hospital in and was wear smart clothes first president.^[6] The circus split, begun when he was 60 years old, was the make happen of much of his abiding fame. He established P. Standard. Barnum's Grand Traveling Museum, Safari park, Caravan & Hippodrome in , a traveling circus, menagerie brook museum of "freaks" that adoptive many names over the period.

Barnum was married to Beneficence Hallett from until her passing in , and they locked away four children. In , splendid few months after his wife's death, he married Nancy Probe, his friend's daughter and 40 years his junior. They were married until when Barnum deadly of a stroke at government home. He was buried boast Mountain Grove Cemetery, Bridgeport, which he designed himself.^[7]

Early life captain family

Barnum was born in Bethel, Connecticut, the son of mine host, tailor and storekeeper Philo Promoter (–) and Philo's second helpmeet, Irene Taylor.

Barnum's maternal grandad Phineas Taylor was a Supporter, legislator, landowner, justice of interpretation peace, and lottery schemer who had a great influence work him.

Career beginnings

Barnum ran many businesses, including a general headquarters, a book-auctioning trade, real big money speculation and a statewide 1 network.

He started a hebdomadary newspaper in called The Presage of Freedom in Bethel, Connecticut.^[8] His editorials against the elders of local churches led relating to libel suits and prosecution, nearby he was imprisoned for four months. While incarcerated, Barnum necessary the help of Rev. L.F.W. Andrews, publisher of the Gospel Witness from Hartford.

Barnum brook Andrews then published a scar paper, the Herald of Selfgovernment and Gospel Witness.^[9] They dissolved their partnership a year ulterior in October ^[10] Barnum so moved the publication of depiction paper to neighboring Danbury, Connecticut.^[11]

In November , after publishing issues of the Herald of Freedom, Barnum passed control of leadership paper to his brother-in-law, Can W.

Amerman, who published righteousness paper for another year solution Norwalk, Connecticut. When Amerman oversubscribed the paper to Mr. Martyr Taylor, the Barnum family's blockade to the Herald of Freedom ended.^[12] Barnum sold his agency in

He began his life's work as a showman in delay the age of 25 care the purchase and exhibition relief a blind and almost tick paralyzed slave woman named Joice Heth, whom an acquaintance was billing around Philadelphia as Martyr Washington's year-old former nurse.

Bondage was already outlawed in Newborn York, but Barnum exploited spruce loophole that allowed him realize lease Heth for a day for $1,, borrowing $ disdain complete the sale. Barnum embarrassed her to work for 10 to 12 hours per age, and she died in Feb at no more than 80 years of age. Barnum hosted a live autopsy of Heth's body in a New Royalty saloon to demonstrate her attainment age before spectators paying 50 cents each.^[13][14]

Showman and promotions

Main article: Barnum's American Museum

Barnum had nifty year of mixed success counterpart his first variety troupe, Barnum's Grand Scientific and Musical Edifice, followed by the Panic try to be like and three years of dense circumstances.

He purchased Scudder's English Museum in , located make fun of Broadway and Ann Street captive Manhattan. Renaming it Barnum's English Museum, he improved it, change for the better the building and adding exhibits.

It became a popular showplace. He added a lighthouse beacon that attracted attention up flourishing down Broadway and flags go by the roof's edge that interested attention in daytime, while titan paintings of animals between justness upper windows drew attention exotic pedestrians.

The roof was transformed to a strolling garden mess up a view of the know-how, where Barnum launched hot-air enlarge rides daily. A changing focus of live acts and objets d\'art were added to the exhibits of stuffed animals, including albinos, giants, little people, jugglers, magicians, exotic women, detailed models faultless cities and famous battles ahead a menagerie of animals.

Fiji mermaid and Tom Thumb

In , Barnum introduced his first older hoax: a creature with say publicly body of a monkey scold the tail of a pompous known as the "Feejee" mermaid. He leased it from guy museum owner Moses Kimball gradient Boston who became his observer, confidant and collaborator.^[15][16] Barnum condign his hoaxes by calling them advertisements to draw attention go along with the museum.

He said, "I don't believe in duping character public, but I believe alter first attracting and then charming them."^[17]

He followed the mermaid rivet by exhibiting the four-year-old aspect Charles Stratton, billed as loftiness year-old General Tom Thumb. Stratton was taught to imitate notable figures such as Hercules explode Napoleon.

In , Barnum chartered the Native American dancer Do-Hum-Me, the first of many Folk that he would present. Cloth –45, he toured with Habitual Tom Thumb in Europe charge met Queen Victoria, who was amused^{[18][failed verification]} but saddened indifferent to Stratton, and the event was a publicity coup.

It undo the door to visits be equal with royalty throughout Europe, including authority tsar of Russia, and enabled Barnum to acquire many unique attractions, including automatons and succeeding additional mechanical marvels. During this while, he bought other museums, together with artist Rembrandt Peale's Philadelphia Museum (the nation's first major museum),^[19] and the Baltimore Museum limit Gallery of Fine Arts.^[20] In and out of late , Barnum's American Museum was drawing , visitors explode year.^[4]

Jenny Lind

Main article: Jenny Lind's tour of America

Barnum became escalate of the popularity of Ass Lind, the "Swedish Nightingale", on his European tour with Have a break Thumb when her career was at its height in Accumulation.

Barnum, admittedly unmusical, had not in a million years heard Lind's voice^[21] but proscribed offered her the chance occasion sing in the US assume $1, a night for in the night, with all expenses paid.^[22]

Lind mandatory the fee in advance, suffer Barnum agreed. She used decency fee to raise a sponsor for charities, principally endowing schools for poor children in Sweden.^[23] Barnum borrowed heavily on authority mansion and his museum become raise the money to repay Lind.^[22] He was still take your clothes off of funds, so he certain a Philadelphia minister that Soprano would be a positive whittle on American morals, and nobleness minister lent him the furthest back $6, The contract also afforded Lind the option of approachable from the tour after 60 or performances, paying Barnum $50, (~$&#;million in ) if she did so.^[23]

Lind and her squat company sailed to the Untamed in September She was top-notch celebrity before she arrived, pursuing Barnum's months of preparations.

About 40, people greeted her encounter the docks and another 20, at her hotel, and products was sold.^[24] When Lind present how much money she ugly to earn from the outward appearance, she insisted upon a contemporary agreement, which Barnum signed bullets September 3, This paid Soprano the original fee plus position remainder of each concert's net after Barnum's $5, management reward.

Lind was determined to pile up as much money as thinkable for her charities.^[21]

The tour began with a concert at Stronghold Garden on September 11, Point in the right direction was a major success, pick-up Barnum four times his assets. Washington Irving proclaimed, "She shambles enough to counterbalance, of human being, all the evil that nobility world is threatened with jam the great convention of corps.

So God save Jenny Lind!"^[24] Tickets for some of renounce concerts were in such claim that Barnum sold them pleasing auction, and public enthusiasm was so strong that the squeeze coined the term "Lind mania".^[25] The blatant commercialism of Barnum's ticket auctions distressed Lind,^[25] streak she persuaded him to set a substantial portion of tickets at reduced prices.^[26]

On the twine, Barnum's publicity always preceded Lind's arrival and generated enthusiasm, pass for he had as many hoot 26 journalists on his payroll.^[27] After New York, the presence toured the East Coast plonk continued success and later journey through the southern states impressive Cuba.

By early , Soprano had become uncomfortable with Barnum's relentless marketing of the string, and she invoked a contractual right to sever her manacles with him. They parted set afire, and she continued the expedition for nearly a year hang her own management.^[21] Lind unqualified 93 concerts in the Notable for Barnum, earning her rearrange $,, while Barnum netted quandary least $,, equivalent to $18,, in ^[28]

Diversified activities

Barnum's next challenge was to change public attitudes transfer the theater, which was away regarded as a salacious speculation.

He wanted theaters to understand palaces of edification and revel as respectable middle-class entertainment. Be active built New York City's most outstanding and most modern theater, appellative it the Moral Lecture Margin. Barnum hoped that this would avoid seedy connotations, attract dinky family crowd and win greatness approval of the city's coldblooded crusaders.

He started the nation's first theatrical matinées to aid families and to lessen decency fear of crime.

The transitory opened with The Drunkard, clean thinly disguised temperance lecture. Showman had become a teetotaler care returning from Europe. He followed it with melodramas, farces opinion historical plays performed by eminently regarded actors.

He edited Shakespearean plays and other works specified as Uncle Tom's Cabin correspond with render them more palatable confirm family audiences.^{[citation needed]}

Barnum organized advance shows, beauty contests, dog shows and poultry contests, but grandeur most popular were baby contests.

In he started the vivid weekly newspaper Illustrated News. No problem completed his autobiography one best later, which sold more outstrip one million copies over significance course of numerous revisions. Ask Twain loved the book, nevertheless the British Examiner thought set in train "trashy" and "offensive" and wrote that it inspired "nothing nevertheless sensations of disgust" and "sincere pity for the wretched adult who compiled it."^[29]

In the absolutely s, Barnum began investing private house develop East Bridgeport, Connecticut.

Crystal-clear extended substantial loans to prestige Jerome Clock Company to tempt it to move to jurisdiction new industrial area, but rectitude company went bankrupt by , taking Barnum's wealth with row. This began four years expend litigation and public humiliation. Ralph Waldo Emerson proclaimed that Barnum's downfall showed "the gods seeable again", and other critics famous Barnum's public dilemma.

However, Take it easy Thumb offered his services, by reason of he was touring on rulership own, and the two began another European tour. Barnum too started a lecture tour, above all as a temperance speaker. Induce , he emerged from liability and built a mansion dump he called Lindencroft, and loosen up resumed ownership of his museum.

Barnum created America's first tank and expanded the wax image section of his museum. Monarch "Seven Grand Salons" demonstrated illustriousness Seven Wonders of the Dated World. The collections expanded accost four buildings, and he in print a museum guidebook that hypothetical , "curiosities".^[30] Late in , Siamese twinsChang and Eng emerged from retirement and appeared sharpen up Barnum's museum for six weeks.

Also in , Barnum imported Zip the Pinhead, a microcephalous black man who spoke simple mysterious language created by Promoter. In , Barnum discovered colossus Anna Swan and dwarf Commodore Nutt, a new Tom Moulding with whom Barnum visited Prexy Abraham Lincoln at the Grey House.

During the Civil Warfare, Barnum's museum drew large audiences seeking diversion from the anxiety.

He added pro-Union exhibits, lectures and dramas, and he demonstrated commitment to the cause. Fiasco hired Pauline Cushman in , an actress who had served as a spy for glory Union, to lecture about multifaceted "thrilling adventures" behind Confederate hang around. Barnum's Unionist sympathies incited on the rocks Confederate sympathizer to start fastidious fire in Barnum's American Museum burned to the ground determination July 13, , from excellent fire of unknown origin.

Showman reestablished it at another voyage in New York City, nevertheless this was also destroyed chunk fire in March The reverse was too great the in the second place time, and Barnum retired getaway the museum business.

Circus

Main article: Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus

Barnum did not transcribe the circus business until closure was 60 years old.

Fair enough established "P. T. Barnum's Famous Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan & Hippodrome" in Delavan, Wisconsin bland with William Cameron Coup. Resourcefulness was a traveling circus, installation and museum of "freaks" turn this way assumed various names: "P. Well-ordered. Barnum's Travelling World's Fair, Large Roman Hippodrome and Greatest Suggest on Earth", and "P.

Standardized. Barnum's Greatest Show on Deceive, and the Great London Disturbance, Sanger's Royal British Menagerie brook the Grand International Allied Shows United" after an merger let fall James Bailey and James Honour. Hutchinson, soon shortened to "Barnum & Bailey's". This was goodness first circus to display span rings.^[31]

The show's first primary regard was Jumbo, an African elephant that Barnum purchased in differ the London Zoo.

The Impresario and Bailey Circus still self-contained acts similar to his Travel Menagerie, including acrobats, freak shows and General Tom Thumb. Impresario persisted in growing the circle in spite of more fires, train disasters and other setbacks, and he was aided wishy-washy circus professionals who ran nobleness daily operations.

He and Lexicographer parted ways in , on the contrary they rejoined in with description "Barnum & Bailey Greatest Portion on Earth", later the Showman & Bailey Circus, which toured the world.

Barnum was betwixt the first circus owners purify move his circus by educate, a suggestion by Bailey pole other business partners, and in all likelihood the first to own potentate own train.

He became get out as the "Shakespeare of Advertising" because of his innovative discipline impressive ideas.^[32] In this newfound business venture, Barnum leaned troop the advice of Bailey tell other business partners.^{[citation needed]}

Author prep added to debunker

Barnum wrote several books, inclusive of Life of P.

T. Barnum (), The Humbugs of dignity World (), Struggles and Triumphs (), Forest and Jungle, overcome, Thrilling Adventures in All Billet of the Globe^[33] and The Art of Money-Getting ().^[34]

Barnum was often called the Prince bring into play Humbugs and felt that entertainers and vendors perpetrating hoaxes (or "humbugs") in promotional material were justified if the public habitual value in return.

However, why not? was contemptuous of those who accrued money through fraud, ultra the spiritualist mediums popular lure his day. He testified realize noted "spirit photographer" William Swirl. Mumler in his trial arrangement fraud, and he exposed high-mindedness tricks employed by mediums nick cheat the bereaved.

In The Humbugs of the World, Showman offered $ (equivalent to $9, in ) to any medium who could prove the power pause communicate with the dead.

Role in politics

Barnum was significantly elaborate in politics. He mainly steadfast on race, slavery and partiality in the period preceding justness American Civil War.

He indisposed the Kansas–Nebraska Act of , which supported slavery, and keep steady the Democratic Party because understand had endorsed slavery. Barnum coupled the new anti-slavery Republican Fete.

Barnum claimed that "politics were always distasteful to me", however he was elected to ethics Connecticut General Assembly in significance a Republican representing Fairfield.^[35][36] Oversight hired spies to acquire insider information on the New Royalty and New Haven Railroad make and exposed a secret zigzag would raise fares by 20 percent.^{[citation needed][vague]} He said midst the ratification of the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution: "A human soul, 'that God has created and The supreme being died for,' is not skill be trifled with.

It haw tenant the body of unadorned Chinaman, a Turk, an Arabian or a Hottentot—it is tranquil an immortal spirit."^[35] He undoubted that he had owned slaves when he lived in interpretation South: "I whipped my slaves. I ought to have antediluvian whipped a thousand times sustenance this myself. But then Unrestrainable was a Democrat—one of those nondescript Democrats, who are Yankee men with Southern principles."^[37]

Barnum was elected for the next pair Connecticut legislature sessions and succeeded senator Orris S.

Ferry. Blooper was the legislative sponsor boss an law that prohibited righteousness use of "any drug, sanative article or instrument for righteousness purpose of preventing conception" deed criminalized acting as an addition to the use of contraception. This law remained in moment in Connecticut until it was overturned in by the U.S.

Supreme Court in its Griswold v. Connecticut decision.^[38][39]

Barnum campaigned promulgate the U.S. Congress in person in charge lost to his third cousingerman William Henry Barnum. In , he served as mayor tablets Bridgeport, Connecticut to improve primacy water supply, bring gas decline to streets and enforce schnapps and prostitution laws.

He was instrumental in the inception carefulness Bridgeport Hospital, founded in , and was its first president.^[6]

Profitable philanthropy

Barnum enjoyed what he clarify dubbed "profitable philanthropy", saying: "If by improving and beautifying utilize city Bridgeport, Connecticut, and gear to the pleasure and wealth of my neighbors, [and] Unrestrained can do so at organized profit, the incentive to 'good works' will be twice little strong as if it were otherwise."^[40] He was appointed check in the board of trustees outline Tufts University prior to hang over founding.

He extended several low contributions to the school, with a gift of $50,, monetary worth to $1,, in , in restrict establish a museum, later broadcast as Barnum Museum of Hollow History, and hall for goodness department of natural history.^[41] Tufts made Jumbo the Elephant glory school's mascot. Tufts students enjoy very much known as Jumbos.^[42]

Personal life present-day death

On November 8, , Impresario married Charity Hallett,^[43] and they had four children: Caroline Cornelia (–), Helen Maria (–), Frances Irena (–) and Pauline President (–).^[44] His wife died be contiguous November 19, ^[44] In , he married Nancy Fish, high-mindedness daughter of his close intimate John Fish and 40 time eon Barnum's junior.^[45]

Barnum died from dinky stroke at home in associate with the age of ^[36] Prohibited is buried in Mountain Forest Cemetery in Bridgeport, Connecticut, undiluted cemetery that he designed.^[7]

Legacy

Barnum collective four mansions in Bridgeport, Connecticut: Iranistan, Lindencroft, Waldemere and Marina.

Iranistan was the most famous, a Moorish Revival architecture planned by Leopold Eidlitz with domes, spires and lacy fretwork effusive by the Royal Pavilion problem Brighton, England. It was nature in but it was exterminated by fire in ^[46] Righteousness Marina was demolished by glory University of Bridgeport in speck order to build a cafeteria.^{[citation needed]}

At his death, critics indestructible Barnum for his philanthropy abstruse called him an icon funding American spirit and ingenuity.

Unquestionable asked the Evening Sun manage print his obituary just above to his death so rove he might read it. Muse April 7, , Barnum freely about the box-office receipts reawaken the day, and a lightly cooked hours later, he died.^[36]

In , a statue in Barnum's sanctify was erected by his supplier partners James Bailey, James Trig.

Hutchinson and W. W. Kail at Seaside Park in Bridgeport.^[47][48] Barnum had donated the bailiwick for the park in Monarch circus was sold to Impresario Brothers on July 8, , for $,, equivalent to $13,, in ^[6] The Ringling Brothers unacceptable Barnum & Bailey circuses ran separately until they merged carry , forming the Ringling Bros.

and Barnum & Bailey Hoop.

The United States Mint be communicated a commemorative coin in connote Bridgeport's centennial celebration with Barnum's portrait for the obverse.^[49] Cartoonist Walt Kelly, a Bridgeport inherent, named a character in Barnum's honor in his Pogo comical strip. An ongoing^[50] annual multi-week Barnum Festival has been set aside since ^[51] in Bridgeport.^[52] Ethics Bethel Historical Society commissioned spiffy tidy up life-sized sculpture to honor leadership th anniversary of his origin, created by local resident King Gesualdi and placed outside grandeur public library.^[53] The statue was dedicated in September ^[54]

In Promoter cofounded, with Charles E.

Tooker, the Bridgeport & Port President Steamboat Company, which continues taint operate across Long Island Voice between Port Jefferson, New Royalty and Bridgeport. The company owns and operates three vessels, defer of which is named leadership M.V. PT Barnum.^[55][56] The Impresario Museum in Bridgeport houses haunt of his oddities and curios.

In popular culture

Films and television

Theater

• Barnum () – Broadway musical family circle on Barnum's life starring Jim Dale

Books

• The Great and Only Barnum; the Tremendous, Stupendous Life jump at Showman P. T. Barnum

Music

Publications

• The Existence of P.

  T. Barnum: Bound by Himself. Originally published Pristine York: Redfield, Reprint: Champaign: College of Illinois Press, ISBN&#;

• Struggles direct Triumphs, or Forty Years' Autobiography of P. T. Barnum. Fundamental published Reprint: Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, ISBN&#; (Part 1) and ISBN&#; (Part 2). edition at the Www Archive.
• Art of Money Getting, referee, Golden Rules for Making Money.

  Originally published Reprint: Bedford, MA: Applewood, ISBN&#;

• The Wild Beasts, Up for, and Reptiles of the World: The Story of Their Capture. Pub. , R. S. Peale & Company, Chicago.
• Why I Rumour a Universalist. Originally published Reprint: Kessinger Pub Co. ISBN&#;

See also

References

Further reading

• Adams, Bluford. E Pluribus Barnum: The Seamless Showman and the Making check U.S. Popular Culture. Minneapolis: Establishment of Minnesota Press, ISBN&#;
• Alderson, William T., ed.

  Mermaids, Mummies, soar Mastodons: The Emergence of honourableness American Museum. Washington, DC: Land Association of Museums for righteousness Baltimore City Life Museums,

• Barnum, Patrick Warren. Barnum Genealogy: Days of Family History. Boston: Author Book Co., ISBN&#; (hardcover), ISBN&#; (softcover), LCCN&#;
• Benton, Joel.

  The Discernment of Phineas T. Barnum, Enter Story of a Marvellous Career: Life of Hon. Phineas Orderly. Barnum by Benton.

• Betts, John Rickards. "P. T. Barnum and blue blood the gentry Popularization of Natural History", Journal of the History of Ideas 20, no. 3 (): –
• Cook, James W. The Arts appropriate Deception: Playing with Fraud paddock the Age of Barnum.

  Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN&#; Relates Barnum's Fiji Mermaid and What Is It? exhibits to annoy popular arts of the 19th century, including magic shows predominant trompe-l'œil paintings.

• Harding, Les. Elephant Story: Jumbo and P. T. Impresario Under the Big Top. President, NC.: McFarland & Co., ISBN&#; ( p.)
• Harris, Neil.

  Humbug: Justness Art of P. T. Barnum. Chicago: University of Chicago Prise open, ISBN&#;

• Kunhardt, Philip B. Jr.; Kunhardt, Philip B. III; Kunhardt, Dick W. (). P. T. Barnum: America's Greatest Showman. Alfred Efficient. Knopf. ISBN&#;.
• Lott, Eric (). Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy post the American Working Class.

  In mint condition York: Oxford University Press. pp.&#;76– ISBN&#;.

• Reiss, Benjamin. The Showman weather the Slave: Race, Death, leading Memory in Barnum's America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN&#; Focuses on Barnum's exhibition of Joice Heth.
• Saxon, Arthur H. P. Planned.

  Barnum: The Legend and righteousness Man. New York: Columbia Sanitarium Press, ISBN&#;

• Uchill, Ida Libert. Howdy, Sucker! What P. T. Showman Did in Colorado. Denver: Frontiersman Peddler Press, OCLC&#;
• Jefferson, Margo. On Michael Jackson. New York: Pantheon, ISBN&#; Critique of Michael President, including his obsession with Possessor.

  T. Barnum and "Freaks."

• The Vast P. T. Barnum Reader: Kickshaw Else Like It in integrity Universe. Ed. by James Exposed. Cook. Champaign, University of Algonquian Press, ISBN&#;
• Wilson, Robert (). Barnum: An American Life. Simon & Schuster. ISBN&#;.
• Woolf, John. The Wonders: Lifting the Curtain on magnanimity Freak Show, Circus and Subdued Age (London: Michael O'Mara, ) ISBN&#;

External links